The 29th Dynasty “399:380”  

The Historical Background:  

The Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXIX, alternatively 29th Dynasty or Dynasty 29) is usually classified as the 4th Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. It was founded after the overthrow of Amyrtaeus, the only Pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty, by Nefaarud I in 398 BC, and disestablished upon the overthrow of Nefaarud II in 380 BC.  

 the rulers of the Twenty-Ninth or Mendesian Dynasty were:  

• 1- Nef'aurud I (Nepherites I) 399-392 BC

The statue of Nepherites I

It is believed that Nepherites was a general from the deltaic city of Mendes who, in the autumn of 399 BC, rose against pharaoh Amyrtaeus, defeated him in open battle, and then executed him at Memphis. Nepherites then crowned himself pharaoh at Memphis and possibly also at Sais, before shifting the capital from Sais to his hometown Mendes. The fact that Nepherites I chose the same Horus name of Psamtik I and the Golden Horus name of Amasis II – both relevant rulers of the earlier 26th Dynasty - is thought to demonstrate that he wanted to associate his rule with an earlier 'golden age' of Egyptian history. According to Manetho, Nepherites I ruled for 6 years, although his highest archaeologically attested date is his regnal year 4. Evidence of Nepherites' building work has been found in several locations across the country. In Lower Egypt, he is attested at Thmuis, Tell Roba, Buto. 

phinx of pharaoh Nepherites I, found in 1513 and purchased in 1808 in Italy. Louvre museum.

• 2- Userra Setepenptah Psimut (Psammuthis) 392-391 BC

Psammuthes or Psammuthis, was a pharaoh of the 29th Dynasty of Egypt during 392-391 BC. The place of this king in the dynasty is a matter of debate. Although he is mentioned in three different epitomes of Manetho's Aegyptiaca (Africanus, Eusebius and the Armenian version of the latter) and in the Demotic Chronicle, the sequence of kings is different among these sources and it is unclear if Psammuthes succeeded Hakor, or vice versa. According to a hypothesis of the Egyptologist John D. Ray, upon the death of Nepherites I in 392 BC, the throne passed to his son and successor, which is likely to had been Hakor. However, it seems that in his Year 2 a usurper, Psammuthes (a hellenized form of the Egyptian name Pasherienmut), seized power and deposed Hakor, while proclaiming himself pharaoh. Both Manetho and the Demotic Chronicle give to Psammuthes a reign length of a year, agreeing with the highest date given by archaeological records. 

Bronze statue of Psammuthes.

Relief bearing part of Psammuthes' royal titulary, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

• 3- Maatchnumra Setepemchnum Hakor (Achoris) 391-380 BC

King Hakor

Hakor or Hagar, also known by the hellenized forms Achoris or Hakoris, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 29th Dynasty. His reign marks the apex of this feeble and short-lived dynasty, having ruled for 13 years – more than half of its entire duration. Hakor's accession and relationships with his predecessor Nepherites I were long debated. After Nepherites' death a dynastic struggle did seem to have occurred. In Karnak, Hakor finished the chapel for the sacred barque of Amun-Ra near the first pylon which was started by Psammuthes or possibly by Nepherites I. Hakor died in 379/8 BCE, leaving his throne to his son Nepherites II. However, the latter was able to keep it for just four months before being overthrown and replaced by an army general from Sebennytos, Nectanebo I. 

Sphinx of King Hakor

Hakor's chapel in Karnak

• 4- Nef'aurud II (Nepherites II) 380-380 BC

 Nepherites II or Nefaarud II was the last pharaoh of the feeble and short-lived 29th Dynasty, the penultimate native dynasty of Egypt. King Hakor had already to face, towards the end of his reign, frequent riots likely inspired by Nectanebo. Pharaoh Nectanebo I, who founded the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt after overthrowing Nepherites II.

 28th Dynasty  

The Historical Background:  

 The 28th Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXVIII, alternatively 28th Dynasty or Dynasty 28) is usually classified as the third dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. The 28th Dynasty lasted from 409 to 399 and it includes only one Pharaoh, Amyrtaeus (Amenirdis), also known as Psamtik V or Psammetichus V. As early as 411 BC, Amyrtaeus, a native Egyptian, revolted against Darius II, the Achaemenid Persian King and the last Pharaoh of the 27th Dynasty. Amyrtaeus succeeded in expelling the Persians from Memphis in with assistance from Cretan mercenaries, following the death of Darius, proclaimed himself Pharaoh of Egypt. Although Artaxerxes II, Darius' successor as King of Persia attempted to lead an expedition to retake Egypt, he was unable to do so, due to political problems with his brother, Cyrus the Younger. This allowed Amyrtaeus to solidify Egyptian rule over Egypt. 

The 24th Dynasty “ 735:721 ” 

• The Historical Background:  

The 24th Dynasty backed to the 3rd intermediate period in the Egyptian history. The Third Intermediate Period covers the centuries between the New Kingdom and the Late Period; for much, but not all, of this time, the country was divided into two or more segments. They made the capital Sais in the western desert; it was controlled in the hands of Tefnakhte. 

•  Ancient Egyptian Funerary Texts 

• 1. Old Kingdom “Pyramid’s Text”:

 

Cartouches of Pepi I and Pyramid Texts. Limestone block fragment from the debris of the north wall of the antechamber within the pyramid of Pepi I at Saqqara. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology

Wikipedia

The Pyramid Texts inscribed on the subterranean  walls of Unas' pyramid

Pyramid Text inscribed on the wall of a subterranean room in Teti's pyramid

 The Age of the Pyramids refers to the fact that the Fourth Dynasty was the time when most of the well-known pyramids were built, which include those at Giza. King Sneferu was the first king to express an interest in funerary rites and tombs, which led him to the planning of the largest pyramid at Egypt. His first pyramids were called the Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid. The "Age of the Pyramids" was not just about the building of large and easily recognizable structures, but also a change in funerary practices and rituals. This includes the burying of elites in large structures and the use of extensive mummification.

Family tree of The 4th Dynasty

The 4th Dynasty of ancient Egypt is characterized as a "golden age" of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Dynasty IV lasted from c. 2613 to 2494 BC. It was a time of peace and prosperity as well as one during which trade with other countries is documented. 

The 4th Dynasty heralded the height of the pyramid-building age. The relative peace of the 3rd Dynasty allowed the Dynasty IV rulers the leisure to explore more artistic and cultural pursuits. King Sneferu's building experiments led to the evolution from the mastaba-styled step pyramids to the smooth sided “true” pyramids, such as those on the Giza Plateau. No other period in Egypt's history equaled Dynasty IV's architectural accomplishments

The 4th Dynasty was the second of four dynasties that made up the "Old Kingdom". King Sneferu, the first king of the 4th Dynasty, held territory from ancient Libya in the west to the Sinai Peninsula in the east, to Nubia in the south. It was a successful period and this era is known for its advancement and concentrated government, as seen in the organized building of pyramids and other monuments.

- Period: Old Kingdom
- From: 2575 BC To: 2465 BC

• 4th Dynasty Kings

1. Snefru (2575-2551)
2.  Kheops (2551-2528)
3. Djedefre (2528-2518)
4. Khefren (2518-2492)
5. Bakare (2492-2490)
6. Menkaure (2490-2472)
7.  Shepseskaf (2472-2467)

• Religious changes

The 4th Dynasty is where we truly see a shift in religious practices where worship of the Sun was commonplace. The Cult of Ra grew in size, going back to the fact that Djedefre's tomb was built closer to the center of worship in what the Ancient Greeks called Heliopolis. It was a delta city near contemporary Cairo that had been occupied since the predynastic times, whose ancient Egyptian name was I‌wnw or Iunu and meant the pillars.

During the era when centralization of the nation's material, organic, and human resources began to develop, a relationship of the king to the deities became unchallenged and kings began carving their names into statues and monuments that previously had been reserved for deities. This speaks to a type of god complex on part of the kings. Khafre's famous statue, where a falcon was incorporated into his headgear, equated the king to the god Horus.

This fact, however, caused controversy. It was pitting Khafre's allegiance to Horus against the growing Cult of Ra, not far away in Helipolis. Kings no longer associated pyramids with the afterlife. The afterlife was once believed to be a divine kingdom that was represented as a type of idealistic heaven where only kings and pure hearts could go. Instead, the 4th Dynasty represented a change in this idea, formulated the notion that the afterlife was a familiar place, taking the semblance of Earth. Religious rituals were notoriously conservative, from what historians know, and there is much to be desired from current known records.

• Changing customs drove architectural changes:

Relief of Nofer and his Wife, detail. From Giza, tomb G2110, Dynasty 4, 2575–2465 BC.

The Old Kingdom saw a rise in the preservation of the deceased, making the preparation of bodies much more complex. The position of embalmer was created, and their jobs were solely to prepare a corpse in private.

There were three ways to mummify a body: Stucco: the body would be wrapped in fine linen and then covered in stucco plaster, the features of the body (including the face) were remodeled in the plaster; Linen: the body would be wrapped in linen, which was sometimes treated with natron (a mixture of multiple sodium carbonates. and the linens would be treated with resin so that the features of the body could be modeled; and  Defleshing: removing all flesh and wrapping the bones in linens. Generally, organs were removed which were then put into jars that would accompany the body in the tomb, and the inside of the body flushed out.

Tombs in the 4th Dynasty changed drastically. "Unimpressive" graves did not satisfy the elites, meaning they would settle for smaller structures if the interior was decorated. Hieroglyphic writings were important to elites because, one, it was a lavish display of wealth and, two, it guided their souls to the afterlife. The 4th Dynasty, however, did not have these writings. Instead, the tomb was deeper and super-structures were larger. After the Giza pyramid complex, later generations of tombs were more reasonably sized. After the Middle Kingdom, royals abandoned pyramids; they preferred graves that were carved into living rock of the Upper Egyptian mountains.

• 1- Sneferu 

  King Sneferu

  
  

Sneferu, lauded as "Bringer of Beauty", "Master of All Justice", and "Ruler of Lower and Upper Nile", was the first pharaoh of the fourth dynasty. He descended from a family in Middle Egypt that lived near Hermopolis, and most likely ascended to the throne by marrying a royal heiress. There is still debate as to who his father was, with the credit often being given to Huni, but this cannot be confirmed due to the break in dynasties. His mother, Meresankh I was either a lesser wife or concubine of Huni.

Egypt in the Third Millennium BC was, by all accounts, a land of peace and plenty. Elites commonly ate fattened ducks and geese, and they wore fine white linens.

Until his reign, Egyptian kings were thought to be worldly incarnations of Horus, obtaining total deification exclusively in death. Sneferu was the first king to proclaim that he was the embodiment of Ra, another sun deity. Khufu would pursue his father's path, taking the name Son of the Sun God.

Cartouche name Sneferu in the Abydos King List

On the whole, Egypt was ruled by two centers of power—legal authority and traditional authority. Legal authority constituted governing by the king, not over the people directly, but via viziers and nomarchs. Traditional authority was derived from the concept that the deities gave a king the divine right to rule as he pleased. At its heart, the 4th Dynasty Egyptian government became organized so that only the king could direct traditional authority.

The Bent Pyramid

Meidum Pyramid

Red Pyramid at Dashur

By the end of his military efforts, he managed to capture 11,000 prisoners and 13,100 head of cattle.

• 2- Khufu:

King Khufu built The Great Pyramid of Giza

King Khufu

Khufu, known to the Greek as Cheops, and Sneferu's successor—though it is unclear whether he was the biological son of Sneferu—was a widely known king. He is still known very well in present-day media, being featured in movies, novels, and television shows. His fame stems from his pyramid on the northeastern plateau at Giza, where he was buried. His mortuary temple was built on the northern end of the pyramid, which is no longer accessible due to ravages by grave robbers. Only three-dimensional reliefs have been recovered and have lasted into modern day, including many limestone busts and clay figurines. Khufu's activities in and out of Egypt are not well documented (except his architecture work) and was highly romanticized by the Ancient Greeks. These Greeks felt that Khufu was a wicked man who offended the deities and forced his subjects into slavery. Khufu, as the son of Sneferu, was believed to be illegitimate and therefore unworthy of the throne. Even if he was Sneferu's true son, he did very little to expand the country of Egypt and failed to follow his father's footsteps. There are only a few records that stated he was involved in any political activities. The best guess historians can make is that there is evidence of construction of a harbor on the coast of the Red Sea that was excavated by John Gardner Wilkinson and James Burton in 1823.

King Djedefre

• 3- Djedefre:
  

Painted limestone Sphinx of Hetepheres II, possibly the first depiction of a sphinx, she was one of the longest lived members of the 4th dynasty royal family, a daughter of Khufu, she was the wife of, and lived into the reign of Shepseskaf 

Djedefre is credited by historians with a reign of eight years. Not much is known of Djedefre, including his inconclusive lineage. It is possible that he is Khufu's son or that he was Khufu's brother. It is widely suggested that he is the son of a lesser queen who murdered the rightful heir to the throne and Djedefre's half brother, the crown prince Kawab. Djedefre chose to build his pyramid several kilometers north of Giza, creating speculation that there was a family feud that caused Djedefre to want to be far away from Khufu's tomb. A more favorable conclusion was that Djedefre chose to be buried closer to Iunu, the center of the cult of Ra. His pyramid also features a statue of his wife, Hetepheres II, in the form of a sphinx. She was a daughter of Khufu and had been the wife of Kawab. It is sometimes suggested that this was the first true sphinx, although there is debate about the sphinx at Giza that was credited to Khafre. She became the longest living royal member of the dynasty, living into the reign of Shepseskaf.

Cartouche of Djedefre

So little remains of the pyramid, that it was assumed it was left unfinished.

A view on the remains of the mortuary temple, with two of the Giza pyramids in the background.

• 4- Khafre: 

King Khafre with Horus

statue King Khafre

Khefren's pyramid at Giza, with the Great Sphinx in the foreground.

• 5- Menkaure :

  King Menkaure with his wife & HatHor

  
  

Like many kings in this dynasty, the length of Menkaure's reign is uncertain, being projected for more than 63 years but it can certainly be an exaggeration. Menkaure succeeded his father, King Khafre. His pyramid is the third and smallest of those at Giza pyramid complex and is known as Netjer-er-Menkaure, which translates into "Menkaure is Divine". There was a sarcophagus found within the pyramid, that is approximately eight feet in length and three feet in height, made of basalt. Like many of the previous pyramids, Menkaure's was not inscribed, the interior having no record keeping of any kind.

Menkaure Pyramid

Valley Temple of Menkaure

King Shepseskaf

• 6- Shepseskaf:
  

Shepseskaf is generally accepted as the last king of the 4th Dynasty, succeeding Menkaure. There is no conclusive evidence of who his mother is, though it is believed that he was the son of a minor queen. Who his wife was also is unknown. Shepseskaf broke the chain of pyramid building by the previous five kings. Instead of a triangular pyramid, he chose to construct a rectangular block, commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun ("Pharaoh's Bench"). In like fashion, however, little script was found inside his tomb and he was buried in very simple terms.

The oddly shaped tomb of Shepseskaf at Saqqara.

 This dynasty ruled for nearly two centuries and consists of kings known as Amenemhat and Senusret respectively, and they are as follows:

The family tree of 12th Dynasty

-King Amenemhat I

-King Senusret I

-King Amenemhat II

-King Senusret II

-King Snow

• King Amenemhat I ( 1991 - 1962 BC 

Egypt flourished greatly during his reign, and one of the most important actions of King Amenemhat I was that he organized the government, limited the power of the nobles, and moved the capital from Thebes in the south to Athetawi, meaning (holding the two lands) in the north it is near the area of Lisht, which is the area chosen by King Amenemhat I to build his pyramid. He was interested in the temples of the gods and was also interested in the city of Lisht because he chose it to build his pyramid group. He was also interested in the political and social aspects and the administrative state in the state, he ruled Egypt for 30 years, including 10 years in which his son Senusret I shared the rule with him, and in a papyrus known as “King Amenemhat I’s Advice to His Son,” in which he explains matters of government and explains to him how did the enemies kill him .

Cartouche of Amenemhat I, detail of a wall-block from Koptos

Horus name of King Amenemhat I, from Koptos

Pyramid of Amenemhet I at el-Lisht

• King Senusret I ( 1971 - 1926 BC )

Statue of Senusret I

Statue of King Senusret I in the white Hedjet crown of Upper Egypt

Osiride statue of Senusret I

• King Senusret II ( 1897 - 1878 BC )

The statue of Senusret II

He is the son of Amenemhat II. He shared rule with his father for two years, and after that he ruled alone for 19 years. He followed his father's policies, whether internal or external, and it seems that he preferred, like his father, a life of peace. We did not find texts indicating that he waged wars of revenge in Africa or Asia. He was content with exploiting mines and quarries in Sinai and Wadi Hammamet He took care of the city of Fayoum and established irrigation projects there. He built his pyramid near Al-Lahun at the entrance to Fayoum. It seems that he did not care about the established traditions that were recognized by him in the Old and Middle Kingdom regarding the construction of the pyramid, as he made its entrance on the southern facade (which is often on the northern facade).With the death of this great king, a bright period of Pharaonic history ended in which the four kings of this dynasty united Egypt economically, socially, and politically. They tried their best to avoid wars with their neighbors, and the Pharaoh at that time had prestige everywhere.

The Pyramid of Senusret II at El-Lahun

Limestone slab showing the cartouche of Senusret II and the name and image of the goddess Nekhbet. From Mastaba 4, north side of Senusret II Pyramid at Lahun, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.

• King Senusret III ( 1878 - 1839 BC )

He is the son of Senusret II and ruled Egypt for about 35 years, In it, he was able to eliminate the influence of the regional rulers after their wealth and influence increased, and after that they became employees, nothing more and nothing less Thus, the prestige of the ruling king returned to Egypt, and King Senusret III made a great effort to assert his authority over Nubia, as he launched four disciplinary campaigns It ended with Nubia's final annexation of Egypt. As for the northeast, Senusret also launched campaigns to strengthen the Sultan of Egypt, whether in Palestine or Syria. Senusret III died after building his pyramid in Dahshur, and Egypt was at the height of its glory and thanks to him it became safe from southern and eastern invasions. 

King Senusret III

Granite statue of Senwosret III - he is shown wearing the nemes headcloth with a cobra image of Wadjet at the front, the pleated shendyt kilt, and the bull's tail, visible between his legs; beneath his feet are nine bows, symbolizing Egypt's traditional enemies under his power; unlike his predecessors, who were shown with idealized facial features, Senwosret has heavily lidded eyes, lined and haggard cheeks, and pursed lips; the reason for this stylistic change is not known, but imitations of his features by later kings and private individuals suggest that Senwosret's features were intended to convey his virtuous qualities. Brooklyn Museum ( Wikipedia )

The stela of Senusret III

• King Amenemhat III

Everything that his father, Senusret III, did, whether internally in terms of reforms or externally in terms of wars, had an impact on the life of prosperity and peace that his son Amenemhat III 

Statue of Amenemhat III

lived as king of Egypt, which lasted 45 years, all of which he devoted to economic aspects for the benefit of the country . He was interested in sending missions to the Sinai mines to exploit copper and turquoise, as more than 59 inscriptions recorded by the foremen there in his name and dating back to his era were found there. He also sent missions to the Wadi Hammamet quarries to extract basalt, to the Tura quarries to extract white limestone, and to Nubia to extract gold. He also paid attention to irrigation projects, where he reclaimed lands flooded with water and stored that water for use in times of drought. King Amenemhat III built two pyramids for him, the first in Dahshur and the second in Hawara near Fayoum. With the death of Amenemhat III, a bright period in the history of Egypt ended, and his son, King Amenemhat IV, assumed power after him, who ruled according to the Turin Papyrus for 9 years. We do not know exactly the period during which he shared the rule with his father, then his sister Sobekneferu came after him and ruled for three years, and her name was found on many antiquities dating back to this period. After that, the 12fth Dynasty and thus the Middle Kingdom collapsed.

The pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara

The Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III